War in the Bluegrass State

CAMPAIGN NOTE

This narrative campaign is based on the Confederate invasion of Kentucky in August-October 1862. The narrative  will follow the historical storyline until a situation occurs were history might take another course or game result changes that storyline. Where I have deliberately changed any historical background I will add a HISTORICAL NOTE and when I judge than an option needs to be taken by a commander I will list the options and the course taken in a GAME NOTE.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

In the spring of 1862, Union troops had won a string of victories at Forts Henry and Donelson and at Shiloh. They captured the Tennessee cities of Nashville and Memphis placing most of the Cumberland and Tennessee River valleys had come under their control. By the middle of the year the Union forces, under Major General Ulysses Grant and Major General Don Carlos Buell, had sprawled across most of Tennessee and Northern Mississippi lacking direction. The Confederates sought to regain the initiative in this critical region. In July Major General Edmund Kirby Smith, commanding the Department of East Tennessee floated the idea of an invasion of Kentucky, believing that such an operation would allow them to obtain supplies, enlist recruits and divert Union troops from Tennessee. He believed that the whole of the Bluegrass Country could be secured easily and 25,000 to 30,000 men would rush to enlist. Confederate President Davis had been frustrated with General Beauregard's inactivity in Mississippi and replaced him with Major General Braxton Bragg. He then suggested that Bragg shift his base of operations from Tupelo Mississippi to Chattanooga from where he might support Kirby Smith. Bragg considered a number of options but in the end moved his Army of Mississippi to Chattanooga. Smith and Bragg met in Chattanooga on July 31, and devised a plan for the campaign. Bragg's army needed rest after its relocation so Kirby Smith, with his Army of Kentucky, reinforced by two of Bragg's brigades, would march into Kentucky and clear the Yankees from the Cumberland Gap. A third Confederate army would move into Northern Mississippi to hold Grant in place. Kirby Smith would then join Bragg and their combined force of 60,000 men would threaten the Buell's rear and force him to fight a battle for his supply lines. It was bold but risky plan requiring perfect coordination between multiple armies that would initially have no unity of command and they would be operating in areas with poor communication. Bragg almost immediately began to have second thoughts, but Davis strongly supported the idea. Not only would it frustrate Union efforts, but he believed that Kentucky, which had declared its neutrality earlier in the war, could still be turned to the Confederate cause.

At 38 years old Edmund Kirby Smith was an ambitious man. This Floridian was a soldier of some experience. After graduating from West Point in 1845 he served in Mexico with Zachary Taylor and Winfield Scott, fighting at Resaca de Palma, Palo Alto, Cerro Gordo, Contereras and Chururubusco. Post war service in Texas, the Military Academy and against the Comanches in Kansas followed. When Florida seceded in 1861, he offered his services to the Confederacy and was immediately made a major of artillery then on the same day was made lieutenant colonel in the cavalry. He served briefly as Assistant Adjutant General to Joseph Johnston before being promoted to brigadier general and given a brigade in the Army of the Shenandoah that he led at the First Battle of Bull Run. His was the brigade that secured the Confederate left, but in the battle he was wounded in the neck and shoulder and spent three months in command in Florida while recuperating. He returned to Virginia as a major general commanding a division in the Army of Northern Virginia, but in early 1862 was transferred west. By mid-1862 he commanded the Department East Tennessee based at Knoxville

No sooner had the two brigades from Bragg arrived in Knoxville than Kirby Smith changed his mind. He could see no personal gain in the arrangement. He would invade the Bluegrass country on his own, renaming his force the Army of Kentucky. He was confident that the appearance of his army there would see recruits flock to the Confederate flag. He advised Bragg that he was abandoning their agreement and was bypassing Cumberland Gap, masking it with a token force while he moved north. Bragg warned that if Buell moved north he would have the inside track and could easily overwhelm the Army of Kentucky before the Army of Mississippi could join him.

Smith thought "we won't need you. We have 22,000 men and we will pick up another 30,000 in Kentucky in no time." Beside Bragg had a reputation in the Old Army as cautious, cantankerous and difficult to work with. Some said he had argued with everyone in the army. He wasn't popular among his own generals and he had shot some of his own men for desertion - that sort of thing didn't go down well with these volunteer types.

*******

The army marched north on the morning of 13 August. For three days they marched through rugged Cumberland Mountains via Rogers’s Gap to Jelico, on the Kentucky state line. Kirby Smith's army comprised four divisions: Stevenson's (9,000 men), Heth's (5,000 men), Churchill's (3,000 men), Bragg's two brigades under Cleburne's (2,000 men) and Scott's cavalry brigade (1,000 men).

The first objective was to isolate the Yankee force of General Morgan at Cumberland Gap, supposed to be around 8,000 strong. Cutting their supply line that ran via London to Lexington would force them to either retreat or starve. Kirby Smith assigned Stevenson's Division, almost half his army, for this task and with the remaining 5,000 men of Churchill and Cleburne (Heth was still marching from Virginia) he pressed on to London, while Scott’s cavalry ranged north along the Old State Road toward Lexington.

At Jelico the army divided into two columns to take pressure of the country roads heading for London, 60 miles to the north. Scott's cavalry had ridden through London days before and pressed further north. At Big Hill, just south of Richmond, Scott met and scattered two Yankee cavalry regiments.

Kirby Smith's Zone of Operation in Kentucky

Kirby Smith was pleased with campaign's progress to date. Morgan was safely contained at Cumberland Gap, the only Yankees that had been encountered had been pushed aside and rumours told that Buell had given up his positions in Tennessee and was heading for Nashville - that part of the plan had been achieved. He allowed the troops to rest after the arduous passage through the mountains, "a feat rivaling the passage dof the Alps" the wrote his wife, likening his actions to Hanibal, Caesar or Napoleon. "God will direct me on the path of victory and success..." he continued. On 24 August he set off north again, making for Lexington.

*******

William Nelson commanded the 4th Division, Army of the Ohio with headquarters in Lexington. At 37 years of age this native Kentuckian was a huge ox of a man - over six feet tall and weighing 300 pounds - who had earned the nickname 'Bull'. He had joined the Navy and by 1840 was midshipman. He served with the fleet that landed Winfield Scott's expedition at Veracruz in the Mexican War. When the secession crisis occurred in 1861 is brother, a good friend of Lincoln's, arranged for Bull to be sent to Kentucky as an observer to measure the political situation in this border area. When the State formally declared for the Union Nelson was made brigadier general and placed in charge of Camp Dick Robinson, near Lexington, that became the rallying point for loyal troops. He joined Buell's Army of the Ohio and fought at Shiloh. He later participated in the advance on Corinth and was with Buell as he began his move on Bragg at Chattanooga. However, in July of 1862 he was made major general and ordered to northeastern Kentucky to defend the area against a build up of Rebel forces in north eastern Tennessee.

His command in Kentucky was entirely composed of raw recruits, 8,000 men that he quickly formed into two infantry brigade and one cavalry brigade. Commanding the first brigade of four regiments and two batteries of guns, was Brigadier General Manson - who had been trading as a druggist prior to the outbreak of war, but has served with relative competence in the campaigns in western Virginia in 1861. The second brigade of four regiments was led by Brigadier General Charles Cruft who pre-war life saw him pursuing employment as a bank clerk, lawyer, railroad president and publisher. Cruft had fought at Fort Donelson and was wounded three times while leading his regiment in the Hornet's Nest at Shiloh. Brigadier General James Jackson commanded the four regiments of the cavalry brigade. Jackson, also a lawyer, had served in the Mexican War with the cavalry and in 1859 had been elected to Congress, but resigned in 1861 to raise a regiment of Kentucky Cavalry.

The first real indication  that the Rebels were coming north was on 23 August when the Rebel cavalry smashed and scattered two cavalry regiments at Big Hill. Bull Nelson ordered Manson to take his brigade to Richmond, some eight miles north of Big Hill. On the afternoon of the 29th the leading elements of the brigade were south of the town.

*******

Colonel John Scott was forward with the 1st Louisiana Cavalry when the shooting started. The First was his regiment. He had raised it. When secession came he had been a successful planter near the East-Louisiana town of Clinton, some 45 miles north of Baton Rouge. He had seen service in the Mexican War and quickly offered his services to the Confederacy on his state's secession, serving first in Virginia where he was a scout for General John Magruder. He was ordered to return to Louisiana to recruit a regiment of cavalry that the end of October 1861 was mustered into service 900 men strong. The 1st Louisiana had initially served in Kentucky where it was devastated by an outbreak of measles - a common problem in camps that brought country and city men together - that killed many men and saw more sent home. Scott lead the regiment at Shiloh in Bedford Forrest's Brigade. In August 1862 Kirby Smith gave him command of a brigade of three regiments and a light battery.

The 1st Louisiana skirmished with Yankee for about half an hour when Scott decided to push the issue. The advance had just begun and the Yankee troopers were beginning to give ground when infantry and artillery was sighted. Scott broke off the contact at once and fell back on Big Hill, leaving a few scouts to watch the Yankees. At Big Hill he met Pat Cleburne, who had arrived there that afternoon with the first infantry of the army.

Thirty-four year old Pat Cleburne was a recent immigrant. Having failed his apothecary exams in Ireland he had joined the British Army, later purchasing his release, emigrating to the Americas and settling in Little Rock, Arkansas, where he practiced as a druggist and a lawyer. When war came he raised a company of riflemen and seized the Little Rock arsenal. In command of a brigade he fought at Shiloh and soon thereafter took command of a division in the Army of Mississippi. With two brigades, Preston-Smith's and Hill's he had been assigned to the Army of Kentucky.

"What do you make of it, John?" Cleburne asked in an brogue so strong that Scott sometimes struggled to understand.

"It started off with just a few troopers, maybe a company or two, but then they got some infantry up, and some guns," Scott replied. "So I pulled back. The scouts have reported that more infantry have come up, two, three, maybe even four regiments."

"A brigade?"

"Maybe."

"You'd better report this to the general. He's looking for an opportunity and this may be it," Cleburne said.

Scott nodded and turned away. 

Half an hour later Cleburne received a message to report at once to Kirby Smith.

*******

Kirby Smith was in an excited state when Cleburne arrived. Without so much as a greeting he looked at Cleburne and said, "I want you to hit them hard in the morning general. I'll have Churchill come up as quick as he can. We have them Pat."

Cleburne was not so certain. "Colonel Scott's reconnaissance seemed a little vague to me, sir. Shouldn't we wait until we have confirmed if there's nothing else behind them?"

"There isn't, Pat. Its just a brigade and most likely militia," Kirby Smith said, rubbing his hands together with glee. "My sources tell me that there is no serious force between here and Lexington. We will have them. You will attack first and Churchill will follow. I will send Scott to get in behind them. We will cut off the retreat and take them all. God is with us Pat, we will take them all!"

He had to admire the man's enthusiasm. "Very good, sir, we will be on the road at first light."

"Good man, Pat," Kirby Smith said patting the Irishman on the back.

*******

Mahlon Manson arrived at Richmond after the firing had ceased. The captain of the cavalry was jubilant that he had driven off the Rebs, but Manson did not share his optimism. Something told him that this was the start of something more serious than just a skirmish between outposts. He ordered the brigade to take up positions and had the cavalry push forward another mile to the south. If anything was coming north he wanted good warning. He sent a message off to General Nelson and then settled down for the night.

*******

The Battle of Richmond

*******

 

True to his word Cleburne had his division on the road north at daybreak. With skirmishers thrown forward the division advanced quickly and just after 7:00AM, having been on the road for a little more than an hour and a half, they encountered Yankee skirmishers in the fields about eight miles south of Richmond. Cleburne formed the division for battle, with Hill's Brigade in first line and Preston Smith's remained in its march column behind. the Yankee skirmish line gave way easily when Hill's skirmishers threatened their flanks, falling back on their main line about half a mile to the rear. 

Drawing his binoculars Cleburne scanned the enemy position. They were formed on some high ground either side of the road. A single whitewashed building stood to the left of the road. It looked like the line was about half a mile in length and by counting the flags he figured four or five regiments, but what concerned him was that they seemed to have a significant number of guns. He could see two distinct groups astride the road. Was that two batteries? If it was it was at least twelve guns, since the Yankees formed their batteries in sixes ...that is an awful lot of guns to support four of five regiments. He thought,  "there could be 4,000, may be more, and they have twice as many guns as me. On the other hand all accounts indicate that these were new troops, maybe even militia or home guard. A sudden rush straight at them might drive them from their position".

But this was no time to take risks. He  knew that Churchill was close at hand and would be with him within the hour. He ordered his two batteries forward, Martin's Florida and Douglas' Texas batteries, and  placed them in front of the infantry line. "Draw their fire," he told the battery captains, "but fire slowly, make every shot count. I want to try to see what they have." When he understood what was in front of him, he would send Hill forward.

*******

Manson formed his line on a ridgeline near the Mount Zion Church. It gave a good view and field of fire across the open ground along the Road to Big Hill. He had with him all four regiments and two Michigan batteries - a total of twelve guns. The entire force was made up of untested raw recruits. He placed the artillery astride the road, a few hundred yards south of the church. Behind them he put the 69th and 55th Indiana, the 69th on the right and 55th the left. The 16th Indiana stood behind the 55th and the 71st behind the 16th. Two companies from the 55th were pushed half a mile south as skirmishers.

A little before 7:00 AM, within minutes of his troops taking position, Manson spotted a column to the south. Shortly afterwards firing broke out on the skirmish line and large masses of Rebel troops could be seen forming along a ridge line about a mile distant. Manson immediately sent a messenger off to General Cruft, whose brigade was in Richmond, to come forward at once.

He watched as the Rebels deployed artillery and opened a desultory fire. Nervously he watched the action on the skirmish line. The skirmishers of the 55th soon came scurrying back after being flanked. Seeing that the Rebs to the front were showing no sign of pressing forward he began to become concerned that they might be attempting to get around his left flank, through the woods. He ordered the 16th Indiana to form  the left of the 55th and pulled the 69th across to the left of the 16th. The 71st formed behind the 69th. 

*******

Kirby Smith rode onto the field about 8:30 and received Cleburne's report. The Yankees were not showing any sign of moving, but their advantage in artillery was beginning to show and Douglas' Battery in particular was starting to suffer. He noted that the Yankees seemed to be reinforcing their left so he determined to strike their right. He would bring Churchill up on the left and extend beyond the enemy right. A long ridge running up to the stream would provide cover the the advance. At the same time he ordered Cleburne to advance on the Yankee line with Hill's Brigade, while Preston Smith would try to envelop flank them from the right.

Cleburne got his troops moving swiftly with Preston Smith taking advantage of the woods.

Churchill followed quickly with McCray's brigade moving behind the ridges and McNair's Brigade forming the liaison with Hill.

Further north Cruft's Brigade had arrived and was moving to take post on Manson's right, but without any particular speed.

 

The artillery duel continued as the troops took position. Douglas's battery was suffering heavy and soon retired, but Martin's gunners were having better success and soon silenced Battery G 1st Michigan. The Confederate took full advantage of the silencing of the Yankee battery and surged forward. Hill and McCray made good time, but McNair and Preston Smith struggled in the terrain.

McCray pushed his men hard in the rising heat of the day and he was soon  across the stream and up to the base of the ridge before Cruft's troops had deployed. Hill's Brigade was closing up on the stream to his right.

Cruft managed to deploy the 95th Ohio on the left of the guns. The 12th Indiana formed on the right behind the guns and the 66th Indiana formed on the extreme right, with a large gap between it and the 12th. The 18th Kentucky was still in column on the road.

McCray pushed his regiments forward. His brigade was largely made up of cavalry that had been dismounted through lack of horses and given rifled musket. The 10th, 11th and 14th Texas Cavalry were on the left and the 11th charged uphill against the the 66th, the 15th Texas slammed into the 12th Indiana while the 31st Arkansas took the Yankee guns in the flank. 

Battery F, 1st Michigan was overrun and the Arcana's boys pressed on to Battery G, overrunning that too. The 66th and 12th Indiana were pushed back but did not break. McCray reformed his line on the ridge.

Cruft's Brigade was struggling. The 95th Ohio wheeled to face the 31st Arkansas and the 18th Kentucky delivered a devasting fire that stopped then drove back the 15th Texas. Manson brought forward the 55th Indiana to protect the 95th's left.

Meanwhile Hill got his brigade across the stream and prepared to attack the Yankees on the ridge to the right of the road.

Hill hit the 55th Indiana with the 2nd and 35th Tennessee  regiments, but they were repulsed. To their left the 31st Arkansas  attacked the 95th Ohio but could not drive them. Preston Smith continued to press beyond the Yankee right.

Around this time Manson, who commanded the field, received a message from Nelson not to fight, but to fall back on Lexington. "A bit to damned late for that," he thought. He knew the front could not last for much longer against these attacks but when the 55th Indiana held off the Rebels, he saw an opportunity to form a second line. He pulled back the 16th Indiana and had Cruft pull the 12th Indiana back to form along side it.  

On the Confederate left McCray pulled the 10th, 11th and 14th Texan into line and threw them against the 66th Indiana. The 66th turned in rout and the 11th Texan dispersed them as they followed up.

The Union line has now been turned on both flanks as Preston Smith extended beyond the Yankee left.

Manson attempted to extract the 55th Indiana, but when the 95th Ohio was finally broken, it was forced to turn back and hold off an attack by Hill. In this difficult fight Manson was killed. Meanwhile the 18th Kentucky continued to hold out and roughly handled three of McNair' regiments. It finally succumbed to an attack against its flank by regiments from Hill's, McNair's and McCray's Brigades.

As noon passed Bull Nelson arrived on the field. In his best sailor's language he tried to bully the fugitives of the regiments into forming a line. He succeeded in forming four regiments into some sort of line. But Nelson was soon wounded and  the line streamed north.

Kirby Smith was desperate to push harder and pursue the Yankees to Richmond and beyond. By the day was exceptionally hot and the brigades were terribly tangled. Reluctantly he called a halt. 

Then, less than half an hour later, firing was heard north of Richmond. Scott's cavalry was attacking the retreating Yankees!

*******

Kirby Smith was jubilant. Scott had indeed intercepted the Yankee retreat and in the course of the afternoon brought in 3,500 prisoners. In all the Army of Kentucky picked up 4,300 prisoners and inflicted an estimated 1,000 casualties.  But there were Confederate casualties too, maybe 600, largely from McNair's brigade that had been roughly handled by the 18th Kentucky.

Nonetheless he had effectively destroyed the only Union force in western Kentucky. Lexington, Frankfort and possibly Louisville were his for the taking.

TO BE CONTINUED

 

The Franco-American War of 1866 - an Alternative History of Napoleon III's Mexican Adventure

Background

On 17 July 1861, Mexican President Benito Juárez suspended interest payments to foreign countries, angering Britain, France and Spain, Mexico’s three major creditors. Emperor Napoleon III of France saw an opportunity here. He wanted access to Latin American markets, but equally importantly he wanted Mexican silver to finance his empire. Under the guise of a broad foreign policy of commitment to free trade Napoleon built a coalition with Spain and Britain for military intervention while the United States was distracted by its civil war. The three European powers signed the Treaty of London on 31 October 1861 to unite their efforts to receive payments from Mexico.

The British, Spanish and French fleets arrived at Veracruz in December 1861 intending to pressure the Mexicans into settling their debts and the Spanish took control of Veracruz on the 17th.

The European forces advanced inland to Cordoba and Tehuacán. The following February the French fleet forced the surrender of the city of Campeche and a French army, commanded by General Lorencez, arrived in March. However, when it became clear that the French were intent on the conquest of Mexico, the British and Spanish quickly withdrew from the coalition, embarking their troops on 24 April.

The Mexican army scored an early victory against the French at the Battle of Puebla in May 1862, but the pursuing Mexican army was contained by the French at Orizaba on 14 June. Additional French troops arrived in September, and General Bazaine arrived with a significant contingent a month later. The French occupied the port of Tampico in October, and unopposed by Mexican forces took control of Xalapa in December. The French bombarded Veracruz on 15 January 1863. Two months later French Army began the siege of Puebla.

Bazaine defeated the Mexican army attempting to relieve the siege of Puebla, at San Lorenzo and Puebla surrendered to the French shortly afterward. On 31 May Juárez fled Mexico City with his cabinet retreating northward to Paso del Norte and later to Chihuahua. Having taken the treasure of the state with them, he set up a government-in-exile there.

Bazaine entered Mexico City on 7 June 1863. General Almonte was appointed the provisional President of Mexico on 16 June, by the Superior Junta. The 35 members of the Superior Junta met on 21 June, and proclaimed a Catholic Empire on 10 July. The crown was offered to and accepted by Maximilian of Austria following pressure from Napoleon.

Bazaine occupied Guadalajara in January 1864, and troops under Douay occupied Zacatecas in February. Further decisive French victories continued with the fall of Acapulco in the southwest in June, occupation of Durango in July, and the defeat of republicans in the states of Sinaloa and Jalisco in November.

Maximilian landed at Veracruz on 28 May 1864. He was enthroned as Maximilian, Emperor of Mexico, with his wife Charlotte of Belgium, who had taken the name Carlota. In reality, he was a puppet monarch of the French Second Empire.

Maximilian expressed progressive European political ideas, favouring the establishment of a limited monarchy sharing powers with a democratically elected congress. He proposed to abolish child labour, limit working hours, and abolished a system of land tenancy that virtually amounted to serfdom among the Indians. However, he found few enthusiastic allies within Mexico for his policies were too liberal for Mexico's conservatives, and the liberals refused to accept a monarch.

In November 1864, three French men-of-war (Victoire, D'Assas and Diamante) shelled the West Coast city of Mazatlán, and Imperial Mexican forces under Manuel Lozada entered and captured the city.

The French continued with victories in 1865, with Bazaine capturing Oaxaca in February. The French fleet landed soldiers who captured Guaymas in March. But on 11 April, Republicans defeated Imperial forces at Tacámbaro in Michoacán. In April and May the Republicans had significant forces in the states of Sinaloa and Chihuahua. Most towns along the Rio Grande were also occupied by Republicans. The Belgian volunteers were defeated by the Republicans at the Second Battle of Tacámbaro on 11 July.

United States objections to European involvement had been raised as early as December 1860 and Lincoln expressed his sympathy to Latin American republics against any European attempt to establish a monarchy. But not until after the establishment of the Imperial government in April 1864, did the US declare that while maintaining neutrality it was uncomfortable with establishment of a monarchy in Mexico.

The end of the Civil War changed the strategic situation in Mexico. Almost the moment the last Confederate troops surrendered the United States rushed three Army Corps, some fifty thousand men, under General Philip Sheridan, to Texas. This Army of Observation was considered more than adequate to deal with any French force that was likely to approach within striking distance of the Rio Grande.

The US gave unofficial support to the Juarez government by permitting Mexican agents in the United States to sell bonds that raised $16-$18-million for the purchase of American war material. Sheridan was charged with transferring supplies and weapons to the Liberal army, including some 30,000 rifles directly from the Baton Rouge Arsenal in Louisiana and then “left in the desert” for the Juarez forces to “find”.

As a result of the US stance Bazaine went over to a defensive posture in the autumn of 1865. Although the US was rapidly demobilising its army in the wake of the Civil War, he could not discount the possibility of an open American intervention. He also pulled the French troops back from the Rio Grande so as not to give Sheridan an excuse for an incursion.

As the Mexican conflict dragged on into 1866, tensions between the US and France began to grow and the US Congress placed an embargo on arms being supplied to Maximillian’s army, but deliberately fell short of placing that embargo on supplies to French troops.

The Mexican Expedition was proving to be an expensive operation and extremely unpopular for Napoleon. It was a public relations disaster. Unwilling to risk an all-out war with the US and to try to ease tensions at home Napoleon began to take steps to disengage from Mexico and distance himself from Maximillian.

The Magellan Affair and the Battle of Tampico

In February 1866, as Napoleon was preparing to withdraw his forces a French naval vessel, the Magellan, was en-route to Tampico with supplies for the French garrison there, when it was intercepted by the USS Lancaster and ordered to hove to. When the French ship refused, the Lancaster fired what was intended as a shot across the bow of the Magellan, but the shot struck the French ship and the French fired back.

In the exchange the Lancaster was damaged, but a fluke shot struck the Magellan’s magazine and it exploded. 

A total of 130 French sailors were lost and another 50 fished from the water and taken to Texas as prisoners.

News that a French warship had been attacked and sunk in international waters brought a public outrage in France. Britain also protested the American action, but anxious to remain neutral offered to mediate. When it became common knowledge that the US was supplying arms to the Juarez armies, further international concern was raised.

When the French Legislature was convened a week later the conservative elements whipped it into a howling rage. They demanded an immediate apology, the return of the prisoners and reparations. The US returned the prisoners, but was unwilling to back down and relations took another step backward. Napoleon’s unpopular war suddenly gained support from the populace. Ten infantry regiments, 22,000 troops in all, were ordered to Mexico and a further ten infantry regiments, six cavalry regiments and twenty field batteries were put on standby. The navy was ordered to form a flotilla and put to sea.

The French blue water navy at the time counted some 240 fighting ships, mounting 7432 guns. From this force a 42 ship flotilla was formed with eight of the twelve ocean going ironclads (including the three largest vessels Gloire, Magenta and Solferino), three 3-decker steam ships of the line, ten 2-decker steam ships, fifteen frigates and six corvettes. The flotilla set sail on February 27 and arrived off Guadeloupe on March 20, where it re-coaled before sailing for the Gulf of Mexico, basing itself at Tampico and Veracruz.

In the meantime the US bolstered its naval force in the area, sending its only ocean going ironclad, USS Dunderberg (that had been hurriedly inducted into service), the steam frigates Franklin and Wabash, corvettes Hartford and Pensacola and the sloops Kearsage and Wachusett and a force of 10 smaller gun boats to the gulf, based at Galveston under Admiral Porter. The flotilla could mount 178 guns.

Tensions in the Gulf were extreme and the two rival navies sailed within sight of each other daily. When the French troop ships arrived in the Gulf at the end of March, the French navy became particularly active. On 2 April, the French Tampico squadron, including the ironclads Magenta, Solferino and Gloire, encountered the US squadron intent on turning back a significant convoy heading for Tampico. When the French refused to turn back the American ships were called to battle stations. An hour of bluster followed, neither side willing start an action. In an attempt to diffuse the situation the French commander instructed the convoy to make for Veracruz, but Porter insisted that the convoy turn away from the Mexican coast and the French commander warned the Americans to stand down. When USS Franklin suddenly turned in front of the convoy in an attempt to force the issue Gloire, leading the convoy, was unable to turn in time and struck the Franklin mid-ships, her ram biting deep into Franklin's wooden hull. Franklin was seriously damaged and immediately turned away, but was taking on water so badly that her captain ordered the ship be abandoned.  

Within a matter of minutes of the last crew member leaving the vessel, she sank.

The other American ships attempted to engage the French, but they were seriously out gunned – the French squadron mounted 480 guns while the Americans mounted only 178 (and 42 of those went down with the Franklin). A furious action erupted and in less than an hour the American squadron was badly mauled. Four of the gunboats were sunk, two disabled and had to be taken under tow while Wabash, Pensacola, Kearsage and Wachusett took heavy damage and lost a significant number of their crew. Only Hartford and Dunderberg escaped serious damage in the initial exchange. The French loss was limited to light damage to three of the wooden ships.

Porter attempted to break off the engagement and make for Brownsville, but Dunderberg was a lumbering vessel, with a top speed of 8 knots and the French ironclads with speeds of 12 and 13 knots hounded her relentlessly. The Dunderberg, with her 16 guns, struggled against the combined 118 guns of the three French vessels, but her armour held until Magenta rammed her, tearing a gaping hole. 

Unable to continue the fight Dunderberg struck her colours and evacuated her crew. Shortly afterwards she sank. The rest of the American squadron limped back to Brownsville. It was a humiliating defeat for the American Navy with the loss of six ships, six more badly damaged, 76 crew killed and 193 wounded.

The Second Mexican War

Reaction to the naval defeat was furious. Congress was desperate for a scapegoat and Porter was their first target. Despite his Civil War record he was removed from command a replaced by Admiral David Farragut.  Secretary of the Navy Gideon Wells resigned his post on 6 April.

The Johnson administration found itself in a difficult position. The USA was in no position to go to war. The Civil War had left the treasury bare. There was serious concern about the ability to finance another war. Compounding the issue the President Andrew Johnson was an a perilous position. There was objection to his reconstruction plan, he was in open conflict with his own party and the mid-term elections were looming.

Worse still was the fact that the military was in a weakened state. Most of the Civil War troops had been mustered out (including much of Sheridan’s command that had now dwindled to 35,000 men).  The regular army was spread across the whole country and a significant portion was involved in the occupation of the former Confederacy and most of the volunteer regiments remaining had signed up for the duration of the Civil War making the legality of retaining them in service dubious. The suggestion of a call for volunteers was met with resistance in cabinet with many believing that since less than a year had passed since the end of the war and in a country weary of war the response would be poor. 

The Administration protested formally, ordered the French ambassador to leave Washington and recalled its ambassador from Paris, but stopped short of declaring war. However, the nation’s press clamoured for revenge and something had to be done. Sheridan was instructed to concentrate along the Rio Grande, while Farragut’s fleet was expanded by another 30 ships.

The escalation of hostilities brought a further expansion to the French commitment with naval and army reinforcements being sent the Gulf. Half the navy, nearly 120 warships, was committed along with a field force of 36 line infantry regiments, 8 battalions of chasseurs, 20 cavalry regiments and 30 batteries. More than 100,000 troops and 180 guns, almost one third of the army, were in Mexico by the second week of May.

The French moved north of Tampico, establishing operational bases at Monterrey, with a corps of 30,000 troops, and at San Fernando, with a force of 50,000 men in two corps. An observation force of one corps, totalling 20,000 men was established along the Rio Grande. The navy patrolled the coast as far north as the Rio Grande estuary. Maximilian's Imperial forces guarded the East and South of the country.

On 22 May the Mexican Republican armies attacked the French near Monterrey. The Mexicans were heavily defeated and largely dispersed. What remained of the Juarez army retreated back into northern Mexico and it would be some time before they would be in a position to be a serious threat. Sheridan quickly realised that his command was quite inadequate to deal with the French threat and he called for reinforcements. As the call went out for volunteers the tensions along the Rio Grande became intense. On 25 May French and American patrols exchanged fire, although no casualties were reported. The increase in tension caused both armies to close up on the border. Sheridan, struggling to supply his units inland, closed up on Brownsville. Bazaine, content that the Republican threat was removed, left a force of 15,000 troops at Monterrey and some 10,000 opposite Brownsville, while the main force of 70,000 troops concentrated east of Reynosa, where good roads meant that they could be more readily supplied.

For the next three days there was calm. Neither side was prepared to start anything. However, some of the more radical elements within the Mexican Republicans feared that this calm could lead to an easing of tensions and sought to mix things up. They reasoned that the US was unlikely to start anything, but believed they could push the French to do so. Operating without the sanction of the Juarez government, a small force of Mexicans crossed to the US side, twenty miles east of Reynosa, and in the early hours of 28 May opened fire on French patrols on the opposite bank, killing three French infantry and wounding six more. The Mexicans quickly dispersed when an American patrol appeared on the scene to investigate the source of the firing. The French, believing that the Americans had fired on them opened on them with infantry and artillery fire, killing six and wounding 43 Americans. Things quickly began to escalate. By mid-day two French divisions, with artillery and cavalry support had closed up on the southern bank and prepared to cross.

With things spiralling out of control, Sheridan arrived on the scene shortly after this incident with a US brigade, perhaps 3,000 men, and made preparations to resist a crossing. He soon realised the folly when he saw that the river was particularly low and easily crossed at a dozen points. He ordered his command to fall back twelve miles and take a position on the only piece of high ground for some distance, sending urgent instructions for another four brigades to come forward.

By 2:30 in the afternoon the entire French force was across the river, on American soil, and deployed facing Sheridan. In total the French could count 16,000 infantry, 2400 cavalry and 36 guns. A similar force stood south of the river

All the American commander could hope to do was to delay the French until his reinforcements arrived. The position he held was barren with few natural obstacles apart from a shallow gully to the west and the short, low ridge on which he had his infantry form. His force consisted of six infantry regiments totaling 2,500 men, a single cavalry regiment of 500 men and a battery of 6 guns. At best he could hope for another 6,000 infantry and 12 guns to arrive before nightfall, and possibly another 6,000 infantry and 12 guns by morning. When it all came together he would have 14,500 infantry, 500 cavalry and 30 guns available the next day.

The French, however did not intend to wait until the next day and prepared to advance. With a brigade of cavalry formed on each flank the French infantry deployed in two divisional columns, the first on the left and the second on the right. The artillery opened at exactly 3:15 and swept the American position with fire for half an hour. The Second Division moved off first but struggled to make headway against the well positioned American line. But when the First Division entered the fray, the situation swung in the French favour. A regiment of Zouaves swept forward at an alarming speed, overwhelming the American right, which fell back in disorder.

The American left held out against superior numbers, but with their flank under threat, began a  retreat.

The US cavalry, despite some initial success was quickly overwhelmed and driven from the field.

For a moment it looked as though the US force would be destroyed. Then two American brigades arrived from Brownsville and deployed beyond a gully, allowing the routing American troops of the advanced guard to rally.

The French paused and unable to determine the true strength of the American force assumed that they were outnumbered. The fighting spluttered out and night fell with the Americans falling back another thirteen miles closer to their base.

During the night Sheridan ordered that Brownsville be defended by a mere 1000 men and called  the remain 17,500 of the garrison to march to him. After a gruelling forced march he had 32,000 men and 40 guns on the field a little before 5:00 am. The French appeared before the American line a little after 6:00 AM and the troops were formed across a gentle ridge.

The French also been reinforced. Bazaine arrived at around midnight with another 50,000 infantry, 2500 cavalry and 60 guns. This gave him some 65,000 infantry, 5,000 cavalry and 96 guns facing the Americans. He determined to drive the American force from its position by turning their left, driving it away from Brownsville. His army was formed in three infantry and one cavalry corps. He assigned one corps, a division of cavalry and half of the artillery the task of feigning against the enemy right, while the remainder of the army was to shift right an overlap the American left.

At 8:00 a grand battery of 60 guns opened on the American line while the infantry formed as though to attack. 

Unaware of Bazaine's arrival and working in the belief that he now outnumbered the French, Sheridan was shocked when the French bombardment was unleashed. The sheer weight of fire forced him to pull his batteries out of the line to try to conserve them for the infantry attack that must follow, but not before two of his batteries were badly damaged.

The French feint worked and Sheridan committed half his force to that front so that when Bazaine struck with two corps, with three battalions of Tirailleurs Algériens leading the way, the US left collapsed. 

Sheridan managed to recall some of the troops on the right to prevent a total collapse of the line and a counterattack by a single brigade of US troops stopped the French attack dead, but at a fearful cost – of the 3000 men in the brigade, 2000 were casualties.

Bazaine then turned his feint into an attack. 

The cavalry division in the meantime moved far to the right, overlapping the American line there by a mile, opposed by a single American cavalry brigade. In terrain totally suited to massed cavalry action the American troopers fought a short delaying action that gained just enough time to prevent the American force from being cut off from its base.

The whole fight had lasted a mere three hours but it had been a bloody affair. Sheridan suffered 15,609 casualties, 2,567 killed 6,923 wounded and 6,119 missing. Bazaine losses had been 2,063 killed, 5,567 wounded and 1,232 missing, a total of 8,862.

The American force limped back into Brownsville as night fell while the French bivouacked on the field.

The Conflict Escalates

Sheridan fortified Brownsville as best he could, but with a mere 16,000 effective troops he could not hope to hold out for long against nearly 60,000 French.

Bazaine, in the meantime moved closer to Brownsville, where he could be more easily supplied and prepared to undertake a siege, cutting the rail line north of the city. At the same time the French navy moved to blockade the place. Slowly he brought more troops North and by the second week of June he had a force of 80,000 around Brownsville.

Sheridan’s defeat sent the administration into a panic. The call to volunteers went out at once, but the call was only made on those states that had remained loyal during the recent rebellion. The genuine fear was that the volunteers could not be organised in time to resist a French invasion and occupation of Texas. A total of 30,000 troops were pulled from garrison duties around the former Confederate states, but this force would be woefully inadequate and would still take time to gather in Texas. Of even greater concern was an increasing number of unsubstantiated rumours that a number of Confederate generals were recruiting former Confederate soldiers for service in Texas raising the spectre of a second Confederacy.

In the meantime the US Navy was ordered to disrupt the French supply lines through the Caribbean, but the French convoys were found to be too well protected and little could be done. A serious attempt was made by an American squadron against a French convoy off Cuba. Ten American vessels struck swiftly and threatened to take captive twenty French ships, before a powerful French squadron intervened. In the battle that followed the American ships were handled well, outmaneuvering the French on a number of occasions and two French ships were disabled early in the fight. But like the previous naval encounters the French seriously outgunned the Americans and by the time dusk began to settle four American ships were damaged and the fight was broken off.

On 1 July Johnson appointed Sherman to command the Army of Texas with headquarters at Galveston. Sherman arrived at Galveston on 14 July to find that his army consisted of only 15,000 men. The army was slow to gather because the US Navy could not guarantee safe passage by sea against the French navy. The bulk of the force had to travel by rail and road.

In the meantime Bazaine had offered that Sheridan and his troops could have safe passage if they abandoned Brownsville. Naturally Sheridan refused and Bazaine gave the civilian population 24 hours to vacate the place before he bombarded the town. On 10 July ten batteries shelled the city for six hours, setting much of the place on fire, but causing very few military casualties. When his additional calls for surrender went unheeded, Bazaine ordered the place bombarded again by all of his field batteries. Nearly 120 guns blazed away at the city for eight hours and at the end of the day Sheridan realised the futility of his position as asked for terms. Since no formal declaration of War existed, Bazaine was generous and allowed him to simply march out of the city, with all his arms, to Galveston.

With Brownsville in his hands Bazaine had no intention to press further. He occupied the place with a reinforced division and withdrew the rest of his command south of the Rio Grande. He had no desire to invade Texas, just to defend the Mexican border. He then sent envoys north to Galveston to negotiate a cessation of hostilities.

The defeat sent a seismic shock through the United States. For the first time in 50 years an American army had been defeated on their own soil by a foreign power. Grant sailed at once for Galveston along with a further 25,000 troops, taking the total number of troops available to 56,000, far too few to consider taking on the French. To make matters worse supply was becoming a serious issue. The railroads of the area were inadequate to support the operation of an army of this size. The only practical way of supporting active operations was using sea, using the inland waterways along the coast, but the French naval superiority placed this route at risk. 

Grant advised Johnson that victory could only be assured if the army was boosted to 100,000 men and supported by a double tracked railroad that would need to be  built from Louisiana through to Corpus Christi. He believed that six months would be required before successful operations could be conducted. The prospect of an extended conflict with an economy in tatters and a rabid press was one that Andrew Johnson felt the nation could not bear.  Johnson instructed Grant to seek an armistice while a diplomatic solution could be found.

Napoleon III did not want an escalation either.  War had erupted in Europe between Austria and Prussia and in early operations the Prussians seemed to hold the upper hand. The balance of power in Europe, more critically the position of France, was at risk. Napoleon needed a way out of Mexico, but he was determined to maintain an influence in the region. He proposed that French troops would withdraw from American soil and in time would withdraw from Mexico, but only if the United States would recognise Maximilian's Empire and withdraw support for the Juarez government.

Johnson was in favour of accepting Napoleon's terms, but knew that public opinion demanded more. However, when evidence emerged that the unsanctioned actions of the group of Mexican Republicans had triggered the whole affair, support for the Republicans diminished and animosity between France and the United States eased. Negotiations took a different turn. As a measure of good faith the French agreed to pay compensation for the damage to Brownsville and the Administration accepted and recognised Maximilian's empire. By the end of August the last French soldier had left US soil and a month later the return to France of the majority of the French Army began. Bazaine returned to France as a hero and a Marchal of France.

Over the next three years Maximilian further provoked the Mexican conservatives by introducing additional liberal reforms and the support for Juarez grew. In the disaster of 1870 the last French troops were pulled out of Mexico to join the defence against the Prussians. The United States took advantage of the situation to cancel the earlier agreement and renewed its support for Juarez. In early 1871 Maximilian's Empire collapsed and its emperor was executed.

So ended a strange and previously unknown period in North American history.